The Ecumenical Councils
The Orthodox Church sets aside three Sundays every year to celebrate the memory of the Fathers of the Ecumenical Councils. We remember the First Ecumenical Council on the Seventh Sunday of Pascha, which immediately follows the feast of the Ascension of the Lord. The first six councils are commemorated on the Sunday closest to the 16th / 27th of July, and the seventh and final ecumenical council is celebrated on the Sunday following the 8th / 21st of October. The fact that we celebrate these historical gatherings of church hierarchs several times a year, and that these celebrations are always on Sundays, points out that these memorials are important, and that every believer should be familiar with these councils, and with those teachings that they defended. Despite this, some people have a perception that the ecumenical councils and the dogmas or teachings of the Church regarding the Holy Trinity and the person of Christ are difficult to understand and that they are unimportant for a simple parishioner. Someone could say the following: “Of course it’s important for the priest to understand these things, but for me, it’s good enough to try and live a God pleasing life, to avoid sin as much as possible, to love my neighbor, and to attend the church services on Sunday morning.”
This is unfortunate because a knowledge of the ecumenical councils can, without a doubt, deepen our faith and invigorate us to strive to live a sinless and God pleasing life. One could dedicate much time to the study of church history and dogmatic theology, but this is far from needed to gain a beginning knowledge and appreciation of the seven ecumenical councils.
This is a short introduction to each of the ecumenical councils. Apart from presenting the historical facts — the Orthodox teaching defended and explained at these gatherings, and introducing the main personalities, both Orthodox saints and the heretics opposed to them, who participated in the church councils — this introduction strives to explain why these theological questions were and continue to be important, not just for priests and students of church history or theology, but personally for every Orthodox Christian believer.
What is an Ecumenical Council?
Before we begin to discuss each council separately, we must define what an ecumenical council is. It would seem to be easy to answer this question — but there were many councils, held at different times, that called themselves ‘ecumenical’. In fact, the Church has recognized only seven gatherings as being truly ecumenical. It is interesting to note that signs that would seem to be obvious markers of a council being ‘ecumenical’ — such as delegates from all parts of the Christian world or a large number of participants — are not considered essential for a gathering to be designated an ecumenical council. For example, the Pope of Rome did not participate in any of the Ecumenical Councils, and as a rule, only a small delegation represented the whole of the western Church at these meetings. It is also interesting to note that the second Ecumenical Council was not particularly well attended. Only 150 bishops attended this council. Perhaps it is possible to say that one of the things that makes a council ecumenical is that the teaching that was voiced and approved by the fathers of that gathering is considered mandatory for the entire Church. Also, each of the Ecumenical Councils was recognized as such by the following Ecumenical Council. In such a way, there is a direct continuity from the first to the last Ecumenical Council.
The First Ecumenical Council
The First Ecumenical Council was convened by the Holy Emperor Constantine the Great, who was troubled by serious disputes amongst the Christians. He invited all the bishops who wished to come and gather in the city of Nicaea — which is located in modern-day Turkey, not far from Constantinople — in the spring of 325. Its purpose was to settle, in a spirit of conciliarity, the theological dispute about the Holy Trinity and the essence of the Word of God. The council was attended by 318 fathers, amongst whom were the familiar Saints Nicholas and Spyridon. But the main champion of the Orthodox faith, and the most talented theologian present was a young deacon, the secretary of the bishop of Alexandria, St Athanasius the Great, who in time would himself become the bishop of Alexandria and would be given the title of ‘Father of Orthodoxy’ for his enormous labors in the defense of the true faith.
In those years, a mighty controversy was raging about the essence of the Word of God (the Son of God, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, Jesus Christ) and His relationship to God the Father. Some people supported the traditional teaching that the Word of God is Divine, was not created, and in essence is the same as God the Father. Others, a loud minority led by Arius, taught that the Word of God is a creation of God, and is in essence similar to God the Father, but not identical. As we all know, the Fathers of the First Ecumenical Council confirmed that the Son of God, Jesus Christ, is of the same essence or consubstantial with God the Father. In the Symbol of Faith, we say the following about the Lord Jesus Christ: “Light of Light; true God of true God, begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father.”
The question of why all this is important for oneself personally remains. God created mankind with a certain goal. The purpose of human existence is to become, as far as possible, similar to God Himself, and thus to approach Him, and even join ourselves to Him. Every one of our sins makes us less like God. As a result of our sins, an insurmountable division is formed between man and God. Our personal experience shows that we are constantly sinning and therefore the goal of our life continues to be unfulfilled. Since it is impossible for a person to become God-like on his own, God sent His only-begotten Son to earth to become a man, Jesus Christ, and, in such a way, to bridge the gap between humanity and God and to join man to Himself. God did for us what we ourselves could not do. Now, each and every person can reach his goal in life and commune with God through the Savior Jesus Christ. If the Son of God were not truly God, and if He were not of the same essence as God the Father but a creation of God, He, through the incarnation, did not create a bridge between God and man. He did not join the nature of mankind to God, but only to himself, another creation, and therefore our union with God does not occur. Do you see that the whole mechanism by which we commune with God falls to pieces if we fall away from the true Orthodox teaching that Jesus Christ is truly God?
The Second Ecumenical Council
It seemed that the First Ecumenical Council had decisively resolved the theological questions concerning the Holy Trinity and the relationship between God the Father and the Word of God — but this was not so. The dispute between the Orthodox and the Arians — heretics who did not believe that the Son of God was consubstantial with or of the same essence as God the Father — continued for another half a century. In those same years, semi-Arians appeared. These were people who proposed theological teachings which attempted to find a middle ground between the Orthodox and the Arians. Among them was a certain Bishop Macedonius, who taught that the Holy Spirit was not consubstantial with God the Father and the Son. This was another attack on the Holy Trinity — only this time not on the Son, but on the Holy Spirit.
During those years, (between the 1st and 2nd councils, from 325 to 381), Athanasius the Great, and, a little later, the Cappadocian fathers – Basil the Great, his brother Gregory of Nyssa, and his friend Gregory the Theologian – worked tirelessly to defend the Orthodox faith. These three fathers in their written works clearly and thoroughly laid out the teaching of the Church on the Holy Trinity. Despite the decisions made at the First Ecumenical Council and the works of these fathers, the Arians did not disappear, but gained in strength. Often they were assisted by the secular authorities, who actively replaced Orthodox bishops with Arians. Thus it seemed that the Orthodox had lost, and that the Arians had completely seized control of the Church.
This situation changed drastically when the new emperor, St Theodosius the Great, came to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was a pious Christian who, in contrast to his predecessors, supported the Orthodox, and not the Arians. In 381, he called a council of bishops to meet in Constantinople. It was attended by 150 hierarchs, amongst whom were many saints, including Gregory the Theologian, Amphilochius of Iconium, and the brothers of Basil the Great, Peter of Sebaste, and Gregory of Nyssa. For a short while, Gregory the Theologian presided at the council, but when some began to deny him the right to be the bishop of Constantinople, he, of his own free will, renounced his episcopal see, retired from participation in the council, and withdrew to his own country, where he spent the remaining days of his life. This relatively small — but nonetheless ecumenical — council ratified those decisions accepted at the First Council, and condemned various semi-Arian teachings, including the teaching that the Holy Spirit is not of the same essence as God the Father and God the Son. The fathers of this council authorized the “Nicaean-Constantinopolitan” Symbol of Faith or Creed, which we all read daily during morning prayers, and which we sing together at every Divine Liturgy. In this Symbol of Faith, the teaching of the Church regarding the Holy Trinity is clearly revealed. After this council, the Arians no longer troubled the Eastern Church.
As is the case with the First Ecumenical Council, this second council is important because it defended the Orthodox teaching on the Holy Trinity — that the Son and the Holy Spirit are consubstantial with the Father. Since Jesus Christ is truly God, we have the most solid Intercessor between us and God the Father. Since the Holy Spirit is truly God, of the same essence as the Father and the Son, He is God, and not some created divine power that is always found amongst us. This council is also important because we clearly see the working of the providence of God. It seemed that the Orthodox faith should have disappeared in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, but everything changed in an instant. The heretical emperor unexpectedly died at war, the new emperor turned out to be Orthodox, and the new council firmly established the Orthodox faith. Truly, “God is not mocked” (Gal. 6: 7). Thirdly, we can focus our attention on the wonderful meekness of Gregory the Theologian who, for the sake of peace in the Church, was ready to abandon his bishopric, as well as his right to participate in the council.